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Abstract

Allowing the description of the structure of documents has been one of the key factors for the success of the hypertext markup language (HTML) family of markup languages. This capability has motivated the phenomenon that has become known as the World Wide Web (the "Web"). The next generation of the Web, known as the Semantic Web (Berners-Lee, Hendler. & Lassila, 2001), aims at describing the meaning rather than the structure of data, adding more intelligent search, retrieval, and other agent functionalities to the Web, and tools that make the implementation of this Semantic Web possible are greatly needed. The increasing availability of multimedia on the World Wide Web makes metadata description efforts for multimedia a pressing need, yet with the volume of content being created, often only a rudimentary description of the multimedia content is available. In addition, the digital mode entails a host of other descriptive needs, such as the format, factors such as compression and transmission, and issues such as copyright restrictions and terns for usage. Thus, new and efficient ways of describing multimedia content and meaning are needed as well as a structure that is capable of carrying such descriptions. Several attempts have been made to grapple with this issue using descriptive metadata, one of the earliest of which was the revision of the Dublin Core to ascertain essential features necessary to resource discovery of visual items in a networked environment (Weibel & Miller, 1997). Other metadata schemes, such as the Visual Resources Association Core Categories (http://www.vraweb.org/vracore3.htm), also include format information necessary to the use and display of digital images.

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Abstract

This article presents exploratory research evaluating a conceptual structure for the description of visual content of images. The structure, which was developed from empirical research in several fields (e.g., Computer Science, Psychology, Information Studies, etc.), classifies visual attributes into a "Pyramid" containing four syntactic levels (type/technique, global distribution, local structure, composition), and six semantic levels (generic, specific, and abstract levels of both object and scene, respectively). Various experiments are presented, which address the Pyramid's ability to achieve several tasks: (1) classification of terms describing image attributes generated in a formal and an informal description task, (2) classification of terms that result from a structured approach to indexing, and (3) guidance in the indexing process. Several descriptions, generated by naive users and indexers, are used in experiments that include two image collections: a random Web sample, and a set of news images. To test descriptions generated in a structured setting, an Image Indexing Template (developed independently over several years of this project by one of the authors) was also used. The experiments performed suggest that the Pyramid is conceptually robust (i.e., can accommodate a full range of attributes), and that it can be used to organize visual content for retrieval, to guide the indexing process, and to classify descriptions obtained manually and automatically

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Footnote

Rez. in: KO 31(2004) no.2, S.114-115 (J. Turner): "Professor Corinne Jörgensen's book will be useful to researchers, practitioners, and graduate students working in the area of the management of collections of still images. The book is a fine piece of scholarship that is thoroughly researched and nicely written. It integrates information from a number of perspectives, including cognitive psychology and computer science, into an information science text. This work is timely, since images and other nontextual information are forming an ever larger part of the mass of information available to us. Indeed, in the long history of recorded information an our planet, images "were the only form of written communication for 25,000 out of the 30,000 years of human recorded experience ... we are, it appears, an the hinge of an important historical swing back towards what may be called the primacy of the image" (p. ix). The book will be valued for the richness of the information it gathers and for the intelligent discussion it offers. There are six chapters to the work: 1. Why images, and what do we know about them? 2. Cognitive foundations for image processing; 3. Organizing and providing access to images; 4. Machine processing of images; 5. Image attributes: the research framework; 6. Towards the future. In addition, there is an excellent bibliography of over forty pages, which is valuable because it provides so many good leads into the literatures of information science and of related disciplines that contribute to the discussions of image retrieval presented in the book. There are separate subject and author indexes. The author index is considerably longer than the subject index, an indication of how muck published literature is discussed in the text. Finally, a list of figures and a list of tables provide additional finding aids. The inclusion of discussions of issues from disciplines other than information science reflects the changing reality of information systems for managing picture collections. Throughout the time such collections have been built, there has never been much coordination of approaches, methods, or practices, even within the discipline of information science. Since the arrival about ten years ago of the World Wide Web, major changes have taken place in the way information is organised, stored, and retrieved. The new networked environment requires a great deal of coordination, common standards, and much more uniform practices than managers of collections of pictures have been used to in the past. Jörgensen's extensive research into the work accomplished by a number of contributing disciplines and her presentation of it in relation to the problem of managing collections of images indicates a deep understanding of the issues and a remarkable capacity to relate them to issues in information science. Accomplishing such a feat so successfully makes this work a valuable contribution to the ongoing discussion of how collections need to be managed in the networked environment. The interdisciplinary nature of the problem has never before been presented so clearly, nor so thoroughly.