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Abstract

This article addresses the question "what is information?" by comparing the meaning of the term "information" and epistemological assumptions of three theories in library and information science: the "Shannon-Weaver model," Brookes' interpretation of Popper's World 3, and the Data-Information-Knowledge-Wisdom model. It shows that the term "information" in these theories refers to empirical entities or events and is conceptualized as having causal powers upon human minds. It is argued that the epistemological assumptions have led to the negligence of the cultural and social aspects of the constitution of information (i.e., how something is considered to be and not to be information) and the unquestioned nature of science in research methodologies.

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Abstract

As an answer to the humanistic, socially oriented critique of the information-processing paradigms used as a conceptual frame for library information science, this article formulates a broader and less objective concept of communication than that of the information-processing paradigm. Knowledge can be seen as the mental phenomenon that documents (combining signs into text, depending on the state of knowledge of the recipient) can cause through interpretation. The examination of these "correct circumstances" is an important part of information science. This article represents the following developments in the concept of information: Information is understood as potential until somebody interprets it. The objective carriers of potential knowledge are signs. Signs need interpretation to release knowledge in the form of interpretants. Interpretation is based on the total semantic network, horizons, worldviews, and experience of the person, including the emotional and social aspects. The realm of meaning is rooted in social-historical as well as embodied evolutionary processes that go beyond computational algorithmically logic. The semantic network derives a decisive aspect of signification from a person's embodied cultural worldview, which, in turn, derives from, develops, and has its roots in undefined tacit knowledge. To theoretically encompass both the computational and the semantic aspects of document classification and retrieval, we need to combine the cybernetic functionalistic approach with the semiotic pragmatic understanding of meaning as social and embodied. For such a marriage, it is necessary to go into the constructivistic second-order cybernetics and autopoiesis theory of von Foerster, Maturana, and Luhmann, on the one hand, and the pragmatic triadic semiotics of Peirce in the form of the embodied Biosemiotics, on the other hand. This combination is what I call Cybersemiotics.

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Abstract

Research in vision and language has traditionally remained separate, in part because the classic task of generating a representation of a given image or sentence has resulted in an emphasis on low lewel structural aspects of these media. Image and language understanding should be approaches with the intent of facilitating the performance of a task. Under this view research in image and language understanding must confront common issues that arise as a task is pursued. Languages and images are both input that can be used to maintain a model of a task. A model may by maintained by incorporating changes in the scene that can be characterizes at a high level of analysis. Existing task rlevant models and the associated domain knowledge are used to expect specific changes and disambiguate the interpretation of these changes, thereby allowing them to modify the existing model. From this perspective, understanding input is largely independent of the modality of the input

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Abstract

This article develops a non-reductionistic and interdisciplinary view of information and human knowing in the light of second-order cybernetics, where information is seen as 'a difference which makes a difference' for a living autopoietic (self-organizing, self-creating) system. Another key idea comes from the semiotics of Peirce: the understanding of signs as a triatic relation between an object, a representation, and an interpretant. Information is the interpretation of signs by living, feeling, aelf-organizing, biological and social systems. As a concrete example we attempt to describe Library and Information Science (LIS) - especially Information Retrieval (IR) - in a way that goes beyond the cognitivist 'information processing paradigm'. The mn problem of this paradigm is that its concept of information and language does not deal in a systematic way with how social and cultural dynamics set the contexts that determine the meaning of those signs and words that are the basic tools for LIS to organize and retrieve documents. The paradigm does not distinguish clearly enough between how the computer manipulate signs and how meaning is generated in autopoietic systems, and thereby the difference between physical and intellectual access

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Abstract

Contemporary studies of information and documentation focus on 3 dimensions: the theoretical, i.e. the sciences of interpretation of text; the practical, i.e. the impact of new technology on systems of inscription; and the political, i.e. the consequent proceses of social identification and cultural autonomy. Documentation languages provide rules for transforming items of information into documentation products, and the process of information analysis fixes meaning by applying such rules in the context of collective experience. Information transfer and communication thus depends on a communicational contract setting out the parameters for negotiating meaning. This requires the information analyst and other professionals to discuss the rules of the information game openly with external participants, as the necessary condition for a democratic and equitable science of information

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Abstract

A discourse analysis of the cognitive viewpoint in library and information science identifies seven discourse strategies which constitute information as a commodity, and persons as surveyable information consumers, within market economy conditions. These strategies are: (a) universality of theory, (b) referentiality and reification of 'images', (c) internalisation of representations (d) radical individualism and erasure of the social dimension of theory, (e) insistence upon knowledge, (f) constitution of the information scientist as an expert in image negotiation, and (g) instrumental reason, ruled by efficiency, standardisation, predictibility, and determination of effects. The discourse is guided throughout by a yearning for natural-scientific theory. The effect of the cognitive viewpoint's discursive strategy is to enable knowledge acquisition of information processes only when users' and generators 'images' are constituted as objectively given natural-scientific entities, and ti disable knowledge of the same processes when considered as products of social practices. By its constitution of users as free creators of images, of the information scientist as an expert in image interpretation and delivery, and of databases as repositories of unmediated models of the world, the cognitive viewpoint performs ideological labour for modern capitalist image markets

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Abstract

Purpose - The purpose of this paper is to explore the flood of information that is inundating us. This flood makes it increasingly difficult to make sense of the world and arrive at the correct interpretation of events. Design/methodology/approach - Classic narrative literature review applying the dosage metaphor to the growing problem of information overload. Findings - The seven elements of dosage - amount, frequency, sequencing, delivery systems, contraindications, interactions, and dysfunctions - are used to discuss four major coping mechanisms - escape, attention, delegation, and creative destruction - for dealing with the flood. Each of the coping mechanisms has different entailments for the dosage elements. Originality/value - This essay develops a guiding principle for thinking about how we should cope with this central problem of the information age: suggesting a minimalist approach that offers the hope of clarity in acting in an age that increasingly overwhelms us.

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Abstract

This article is a contribution to the development of a comprehensive interdisciplinary theory of LIS in the hope of giving a more precise evaluation of its current problems. The article describes an interdisciplinary framework for LIS, especially information retrieval (IR), in a way that goes beyond the cognitivist 'information processing paradigm'. The main problem of this paradigm is that its concept of information and laguage does not deal in a systematic way with how social and cultural dynamics set the contexts that determine the meaning of those signs and words that are the basic tools for the organisation and retrieving of documents in LIS. The paradigm does not distinguish clearly enough between how the computer manipulates signs and how librarians work with meaning in practice when they design and run document mediating systems. The 'cognitive viewpoint' of Ingwersen and Belkin makes clear that information is not objective, but rather only potential, until it is interpreted by an individual mind with its own internal mental world view and purposes. It facilitates futher study of the social pragmatic conditions for the interpretation of concepts. This approach is not yet fully developed. The domain analytic paradigm of Hjoerland and Albrechtsen is a conceptual realisiation of an important aspect of this area. In the present paper we make a further development of a non-reductionistic and interdisciplinary view of information and human social communication by texts in the light of second-order cybernetics, where information is seen as 'a difference which makes a difference' for a living autopoietic (self-organised, self-creating) system. Other key ideas are from the semiotics of Peirce and also Warner. This is the understanding of signs as a triadic relation between an object, a representation and an interpretant. Information is the interpretation of signs by living, feeling, self-organising biological, psychological and social systems. Signification is created and controlled in an cybernetic way within social systems and is communicated through what Luhman calls generalised media, such as science and art. The modern socio-linguistic concept 'discourse communities' and Wittgenstein's 'language gane' concept give a further pragmatic description of the self-organising system's dynamic that determines the meaning of words in a social context. As Blair and Liebenau and Backhouse point out in their work it is these semantic fields of significance that are the true pragmatic tools of knowledge organisation and document retrieval. Methodologically they are the first systems to be analysed when designing document mediating systems as they set the context for the meaning of concepts. Several practical and analytical methods from linguistics and the sociology of knowledge can be used in combination with standard methodology to reveal the significant language games behind document mediation

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Abstract

The paper discusses the applicability of contemporary knowledge theories to the study of information and knowledge as conditions of the survival and development of social organizations. Its relevance is connected to the importance that the variability of environmental conditions acquired from the acceleration of time and the relocation of space, as a result of the contemporary technological innovations. The majority of the managerial models, which focus on the production of information and organizational knowledge, share premises originated from a view of the world based on the myth of absolute objectivity. According to this interpretation, the organizational issue is related to the identification of procedures and rules, which enable the organizations to reach an optimal position in relation to the environmental conditions they face. Reflection on information and knowledge in organizations based on presuppositions of contemporary knowledge theories treats the relevance of circumstantial factors in the organization-environment context acknowledging the fact that the specifics in each organization are, at the same time, the contingency and the possibility of its survival. In this context, learning is not a procedure that can be normalized or generalized, but a process and a product of the survival of the organization. Keeping in mind the distance between this approach and the current patterns and methods - scientific knowledge based on the Cartesian method - the article focuses on the consequences of the hegemony of the scientific model of phenomena explanation - the myth of absolute objectivity - on the potential of the contemporary knowledge theory biology of knowing, or autopoiesis theory, by Humberto Maturana and Francisco Varela, which is based on the premise that, for the study of organizations, the perception of the object/phenomenon, and its interpretation, is not reachable outside the perceptive experience itself

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Abstract

Daß Bits die kleinste Einheit der Information sind, kann als allgemein bekannt vorausgesetzt werden, daß man aber damit nicht unbedingt die Speicherform der Computer verwechseln darf, ist schon weniger bekannt. So kann man immer wieder den Trugschluß beobachten, daß Bits lediglich die Informationsmenge in elektronischen Systemen beschreiben, aber beispielsweise nicht in geistigen Werken oder die des Wissens. Dies wäre jedoch ebenso, als wenn man behaupten würde, daß sich zwar die Länge zwischen zwei Punkten in Metern bestimmen ließe, nicht aber die eines Menschen. Es ist daher wichtig, deutlich zu machen, daß wissenschaftliche Literatur über weite Strecken Wissen als eine Form kompakter, also begründeter Information enthält und daß der Mensch in Poppers Welt 3 damit ein Optimum im Verhältnis von Information und Redundanz anstrebt. Redundanz ist nicht nur für die Sicherung der Information von bedeutung, sondern ist auch für die Entstehung neuer Information unabdingbar. Wir müssen auch klarer zwischen Information und Interpretation unterscheiden. Die Interpretationstheorie kann bekanntlich in der Semiotik auf eine lange Entstehungsgeschichte zurückblicken. Informationswissenschaft stellt sich bei näherer Betrachtung als das bislang fehlende, allumfassende Bindeglied zwischen Geistes- und Naturwissenschaften heraus und das Bit als Grundeinheit der Veränderlichkeit an sich. Informationswissenschaft benötigt mehr denn je eine solide Grundlage in der Ausbildung

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Abstract

A discourse analysis of the cognitive viewpoint in library and information science (LIS) identifies seven discursive strategies which constitute information as a commodity, and persons as surveyable information consumers, within market economy conditions. These strategies are (a) universality of theory, (b) referentiality and reification of 'images', (c) internationalization of representation, (d) insistence upon knowledge, (e) constitution of the information scientists as an expert in image negotiation, (f) radical individualism and erasure of the social dimension of theory, and (g) instrumental reasons, rules by efficiency, standardization, predictibility,a nd determination of effects. The discourse is guided troughout by a yearning for natural-scientific theory. The effect of the cognitiv viewpoint's discoursive strategy is to anable knowledge acquisition of information processes only when users' and generators 'images' are constituted as objectively given natural scientif entites, and to disable knowledge of the same processes when considered as products of social practices. By its constitution of users as free creators of images, of the information scientist as an expert in image interpretation and delivery, and of databases as repositories of unmediated models of the world, the cognitive viewpoint performs ideological labour for modern capitalist image markets

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Abstract

The influence of cognitive and affective information processing on the late positive complex of the event-related potential was studied by means of structural or affective processing of adjectives categorized as emotionally negative, neutral or positive. An extensive replication study tested 2 research hypotheses derived from a pilot study with 14 subjects. The first hypothesis stated that the active, conscious evaluation of the affective meaning of the adjectives should lead to a long lasting positive shift, which is maximal over the frontal scalp. This shift should be independent of the emotional content of the adjectives and should not be observed during structural processing. Second, the emotionally negative and emotionally positive adjectives should elicit a more positive P3-component compared to neutral adjectives. This effect should be independent of the type of task (structural or affective). Because the hypotheses are in part related to the interpretation of the null hypotheses of the statistical tests, an a priori control of both alpha- and beta-error probability is necessary. - From the results, it is concluded that affect and cognition are separate information processing functions of the brain and are mediated by different brain systems

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Abstract

In this paper we discuss the construction of information systems ontologies. We summarize and discuss Barry Smith's review (2003a) of the field in the paper, "Ontology." In that essay Smith concludes with a plea for ontologies that reflect the categories of current scientific theories because they represent our best knowledge of the world. In this context, we develop an argument for a hermeneutic approach to ontologies-one compatible with the orientation introduced into information science by Winograd and Flores (1986) and later developed by many others. To do this, we argue that the literature in the philosophy and history of science supports a hermeneutic interpretation of the nature and growth of science. This, given Smith's argument, shows the relevance of hermeneutics to the creation of information system ontologies. The problems associated with understanding and creating information systems ontologies are addressed fruitfully only if one begins by acknowledging that databases are mechanisms for communication involving judgments and interpretations by intelligent and knowledgeable users. The main contributions of this paper are our conclusions that (a) information system ontologies should take into consideration a perspective of the philosophy and history of science, and (b) hermeneutics as construed by Gadamer (1975, 1979) constitutes a place from which we can understand the tasks of information ontologists and database users.

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Abstract

This paper considers an instance of non-verbal graphic communication from the legend of Theseus, in terms of information theory. The efficient cause of a failure in communication is regarded as a selection error and the formal cause as the absence of redundancy from the signals (a binary contrast between a black and a white sail) for transmission. Two considerations are then introduced. First, why should such a system of signalling have been succeeded by a graphic communication system, in alphabetic written language, so strongly marked by its redundancy? Second, why has information theory been so successful in describing systems for signal transmission but far less productive for modelling human-to-human communication, at the level of meaning or of the effects of messages on recipients? The legend is read historically, adopting specific insights, a method of interpretation, and a historical schema from Vico. The binary code used for the signal transmission is located as a rare but significant transitional form, mediating between heroic emblems and written language. For alphabetic written language, a link to the sounds of oral utterance replaces the connection to the mental states of the human information source and destination. It is also suggested that redundancy was deliberately introduced to counteract the effects of selection errors and noise. With regard to information theory, it is suggested that conformity with necessary conditions for signal transmission, which may include the introduction of redundancy, cannot be expected to yield insights into communication, at the level of meaning or the effects of messages.

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Abstract

Ein noch wenig systematisch erforschtes Feld ist die Beziehung zwischen Wissenschaft und Öffentlichkeit, die langdauernder und intensiver zu wirken scheint, als man gemeinhin glaubt. Deutlich macht das z.B. derzeit das Einstein-Jahr, das daran erinnert, wie sehr Einstein und seine Arbeiten in der Öffentlichkeit standen und wie sehr die Öffentlichkeit sich auch auf seine Wissenschaft einließ. Vermutlich war es vor allem das Konzept der "Relativität", das an der Schnittstelle zur Öffentlichkeit besondere Aufmerksamkeit fand, weil es auch zum Zeitgeist der Zwanziger Jahre passte - weswegen eben Einstein ein Star und Planck nur Namensgeber der wichtigen Forschungsgemeinschaft wurde. Wahrscheinlich war es dann das Konzept des "Atom", das als Schnittstellenkonzept fungierte, und zwar schon vor der Atombombe als Konzept, das wegen seiner Bedeutung für den Aufbau der Welt faszinierend wirkte. In den Sechziger Jahren spielte als Schnittstellenkonzept ohne Zweifel das Konzept "Information" eine zentrale Rolle, ausgehend von Shannon/Weaver und dann mit der Kybernetik sich verbreitend. Das klang gleichzeitig nach Rationalität und Überwindung alter Grenzen, schließlich wurde die Kybernetik auch nicht ganz zu Unrecht als "transklassische Wissenschaft" bezeichnet. In den Sechziger und z.T. auch den Siebziger Jahren wurde viel und innovativ mit dem Informationskonzept experimentiert, entstanden interessante Ansätze zur Informationstheorie. Der Siegeszug der elektronischen Datenverarbeitung und später die rein kommerzielle Interpretation von "Information" im Kontext der Diskussionen zur "Informationsgesellschaft" trugen zur vollständigen semantischen Entleerung des Informationskonzeptes bei.

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Abstract

Purpose - Information, owing to its nature, has numerous capabilities. Through utilizing these capabilities, information systems can add to the value of information. The purpose of this paper is to explain where and how added value emerges from the work processes in library and information professions. Design/methodology/approach - The paper begins with a review of the related literature and then takes a conceptual approach to discuss different values of information and IR systems; elaborates on how each of the processes such as assessment of needs, selection, description/organization, storage/processing, search/retrieval, and dissemination generate capabilities that lead to added value. Findings - The paper identifies that added value is generated through processes such as reproduction, exchange, transfer, refinement, analysis, interpretation, synthesis, and regeneration of information. Many such processes turn information into knowledge. Research limitations/implications - This paper is based on the author's reflections on the matter of added value generated by library and information practice. Further empirical studies are needed to substantiate the extent to which such values are generated through information systems and services in the real world. Practical implications - Librarians and information specialists can find through their working practice how to design systems and services which can generate added value for information. Originality/value - In the present evolving conditions, library and information professionals are able to add to the value of information by sharing their knowledge with the expertise of computer scientists and finding a variety of ways and up-to-date methods of optimizing existing systems, as well as designing new systems. These are the two strategies along which the profession should guide its educational, research and practical endeavors.