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Footnote

Rez. in: JASIST 58(2007) no.7, S.1066-1067 (X. Zhu u. J. Liao): "The user, without whom any product or service would be nothing, plays a very important role during the whole life cycle of products or services. The user's involvement should be from the very beginning, not just after products or services are ready to work. According to ISO 9241-11: 1998, Part 11, Usability refers to "the extent to which a product can be used by specified users to achieve specified goals with effectiveness, efficiency and satisfaction in a specified context of user." As an academic topic of human-computer interaction, Web usability has been studied widely for a long time. This classroom-oriented book, bridging academia and the educational community, talks about Web usability in a student-friendly fashion. It outlines not only the methodology of user-centered Web site design but also details the methods to implement at every stage of the methodology. That is, the book presents the user-centered Web-design approach from both macrocosm and microcosm points of view, which makes it both recapitulative and practical. The most important key word in Web Usability is "user-centered," which means Web developers should not substitute their own personal preferences for the users' needs. The book classifies Web sites into five types: E-commerce, informational, entertainment, community, and intranet. Since the methods used during Web development differ somewhat depending on the type of Web site, it is necessary to have a classification in advance. With Figure 1.3 on p. 17, the book explains the whole user-centered Webdevelopment life cycle (called "methodology" in this book review), which provides a clear path for Web development that is easy to understand, remember, and perform. Since all the following chapters are based on the methodology, a clear presentation of it is paramount. The table on p. 93 summarizes concisely all types of methods for requirements gathering and their advantages and disadvantages. According to this table, appropriate methods can be easily chosen for different Web site development projects. As the author remarked, "requirements gathering is central to the concept of user-centered design," (p. 98) and "one of the hallmarks of user-centered design is usability testing" (p. 205). Stage 2 (collect user requirements) and Stage 5 (perform usability testing) of the user-centered Web-development life cycle are the two stages with the most user involvement: however, this does not mean that all other stages are user unrelated. For example, in Stage 4 (create and modify physical design), frame is not suggested to be used just because most users are unfamiliar with the concept of frame (p. 201). Note that frequently there are several rounds of usability testing to be performed in the four case studies, and some of them are performed before the physical-design stage or even the conceptual-design stage, which embodies the idea of an iterative design process.

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Footnote

While each single paragraph of the book is packed with valuable advice and real-life experience, I consider the last chapter to be the most intriguing and ground-breaking one. It's only here that taxonomists meet folksonomists and ontologists in a fundamental attempt to write a new page on the relative position between old and emerging classification techniques. In a well-balanced and sober analysis that foregoes excessive enthusiasm in favor of more appropriate considerations about content scale, domain maturity, precision and cost, knowledge infrastructure tools are all arrayed from inexpensive and expressive folksonomies on one side, to the smart, formal, machine-readable but expensive world of ontologies on the other. In light of so many different tools, information infrastructure clearly appears more as a complex dynamic ecosystem than a static overly designed environment. Such a variety of tasks, perspectives, work activities and paradigms calls for a resilient, adaptive and flexible knowledge environment with a minimum of standardization and uniformity. The right mix of tools and approaches can only be determined case by case, by carefully considering the particular objectives and requirements of the organization while aiming to maximize its overall performance and effectiveness. Starting from the history of taxonomy-building and ending with the emerging trends in Web technologies, artificial intelligence and social computing, Organising Knowledge is thus both a guiding tool and inspirational reading, not only about taxonomies, but also about effectiveness, collaboration and finding middle ground: exactly the right principles to make your intranet, portal or document management tool a rich, evolving and long-lasting ecosystem."

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Footnote

The major strength of Theorizing Digital Cultural Heritage: A Critical Discourse is the balance of theory and practice achieved by its authors through the inclusion of discussion on digital culture exhibits and programs. By describing the work being done at diverse cultural institutions life is given to theoretical discussions. By relating theory to practice, the work becomes accessible to a broader range of readers. Further, these essays provide many examples of how libraries and museums could partner with each other in the realm of digital culture. The field of museum studies is dealing with the same issues as information and library science with regards to data organization, user behavior, object classification, and documentation schemas. Also, the emphasis on the users of digital cultural heritage and how individuals make meaningful connections with art, history, and geography is another asset of the book. Each chapter is well researched resulting in helpful and extensive bibliographies on various aspects of digital culture. Overall, the work is rich in discussion, description and illustrative examples that cover the subject of digital cultural heritage in terms of depth and breadth. The primary weakness of the title is on the focus on museum studies in the discourse on digital cultural heritage. There is much to be shared and discovered across other cultural institutions such as libraries and local historical societies and a more interdisciplinary approach to the essays included would have captured this. The overwhelming emphasis on museums, unfortunately, may cause some researching and studying digital cultural heritage from another perspective to overlook this work; thereby further dividing the efforts and communication of knowledge in this area. This work is highly recommended for collections on museum studies, cultural heritage, art history and documentation, library and information science, and archival science. This work would be most useful to educators and researchers interested in a theoretical understanding of cultural institutions and user interactions in view of the social and political impact of the evolving digital state of cultural heritage rather than in the specific technologies and specific user studies on the digital cultural heritage. Theorizing Digital Cultural Heritage is an insightful work that will encourage further discourse and research."

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Footnote

Chapter 2 (Technology and People) focuses an several theories of technological acceptance and diffusion. Unfortunately, Bruce's presentation is somewhat confusing as he moves from one theory to next, never quite connecting them into a logical sequence or coherent whole. Two theories are of particular interest to Bruce: the Theory of Diffusion of Innovations and the Theory of Planned Behavior. The Theory of Diffusion of Innovations is an "information-centric view of technology acceptance" in which technology adopters are placed in the information flows of society from which they learn about innovations and "drive innovation adoption decisions" (p. 20). The Theory of Planned Behavior maintains that the "performance of a behavior is a joint function of intentions and perceived behavioral control" (i.e., how muck control a person thinks they have) (pp. 22-23). Bruce combines these two theories to form the basis for the Technology Acceptance Model. This model posits that "an individual's acceptance of information technology is based an beliefs, attitudes, intentions, and behaviors" (p. 24). In all these theories and models echoes a recurring theme: "individual perceptions of the innovation or technology are critical" in terms of both its characteristics and its use (pp. 24-25). From these, in turn, Bruce derives a predictive theory of the role personal perceptions play in technology adoption: Personal Innovativeness of Information Technology Adoption (PIITA). Personal inventiveness is defined as "the willingness of an individual to try out any new information technology" (p. 26). In general, the PIITA theory predicts that information technology will be adopted by individuals that have a greater exposure to mass media, rely less an the evaluation of information technology by others, exhibit a greater ability to cope with uncertainty and take risks, and requires a less positive perception of an information technology prior to its adoption. Chapter 3 (A Focus an Usings) introduces the User-Centered Paradigm (UCP). The UCP is characteristic of the shift of emphasis from technology to users as the driving force behind technology and research agendas for Internet development [for a dissenting view, see Andrew Dillion's (2003) challenge to the utility of user-centerness for design guidance]. It entails the "broad acceptance of the user-oriented perspective across a range of disciplines and professional fields," such as business, education, cognitive engineering, and information science (p. 34).