-
Donald, M: Origins of the modern mind : three stages in the evolution of culture and cognition (1991)
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- BK
- 42.02 (Philosophie und Theorie der Biologie)
- Classification
- CP 4000: Psychologie / Allgemeine Psychologie / Kognitive Prozesse (Denken, Urteil, Problemlösen, Begriffsbildung, Assoziation)
CC 6600: Philosophie / Systematische Philosophie / Philosophische Anthropologie / Abhandlungen ; ;
42.02 (Philosophie und Theorie der Biologie)
- Date
- 1. 2.2020 16:21:22
- RSWK
- Kognition / Kultur / Geschichte
Bewusstsein / Kultur / Geschichte
Mensch / Kognitive Entwicklung / Geschichte
Evolutionstheorie / Kultur / Geschichte
- RVK
- CP 4000: Psychologie / Allgemeine Psychologie / Kognitive Prozesse (Denken, Urteil, Problemlösen, Begriffsbildung, Assoziation)
CC 6600: Philosophie / Systematische Philosophie / Philosophische Anthropologie / Abhandlungen ; ;
- Subject
- Kognition / Kultur / Geschichte
Bewusstsein / Kultur / Geschichte
Mensch / Kognitive Entwicklung / Geschichte
Evolutionstheorie / Kultur / Geschichte
-
Floridi, L.: Information: a very short introduction (2010)
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- BK
- 02.02 (Wissenschaftstheorie)
06.00 (Information und Dokumentation: Allgemeines)
- Classification
- WB 4000
02.02 (Wissenschaftstheorie)
06.00 (Information und Dokumentation: Allgemeines)
- RSWK
- Information / Philosophie / Informationstheorie / Wissenssoziologie / Einführung
Philosophie / Information / Bedeutung / Differenz / Daten / Einführung (HBZ)
Biologie / Information / Genetik / DNS / Codon / Kommunikation / Neurobiologie
- RVK
- WB 4000
- Subject
- Information / Philosophie / Informationstheorie / Wissenssoziologie / Einführung
Philosophie / Information / Bedeutung / Differenz / Daten / Einführung (HBZ)
Biologie / Information / Genetik / DNS / Codon / Kommunikation / Neurobiologie
-
Daniel, H.-D.: Guardians of science : fairness and reliabiblity of peer review (1993)
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- BK
- 30.03 / Methoden und Techniken in den Naturwissenschaften
- Classification
- VB 4400 Chemie und Pharmazie / Bibliographien und Nachschlagewerke, Geschichte und Didaktik der Chemie und Pharmazie, Betriebssicherheit / Richtlinien für die Abfassung und Drucklegung chemischer Literatur Wissenschaftliches Arbeiten; Kongreßplanung Englisch für Chemiker u.ä. / Allgemeines
CM 2200 Psychologie / Allgemeines. Geschichte und Methodik / Methodik und Wissenschaftstheorie der Psychologie
30.03 / Methoden und Techniken in den Naturwissenschaften
- RVK
- VB 4400 Chemie und Pharmazie / Bibliographien und Nachschlagewerke, Geschichte und Didaktik der Chemie und Pharmazie, Betriebssicherheit / Richtlinien für die Abfassung und Drucklegung chemischer Literatur Wissenschaftliches Arbeiten; Kongreßplanung Englisch für Chemiker u.ä. / Allgemeines
CM 2200 Psychologie / Allgemeines. Geschichte und Methodik / Methodik und Wissenschaftstheorie der Psychologie
-
Zass, E.: Informationssysteme und ihre Erschließung : Scifinder Scholar und Crossfire und Web of Science und ... - Luxus oder Notwendigkeit? (2008)
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- Abstract
- Das Informationsangebot in der Chemie ist, im Unterschied etwa zur Biologie, fast völlig von kommerziellen Anbietern dominiert, deren elektronische Produkte vor allem einen zahlungskräftigen Industriemarkt bedienen. Das ist eine für Hochschulen problematische Situation, trotz zahl reicher "academic programs" für solche Datenbanken. Die Produzenten haben in den letzten Jah ren u.a. durch Erweiterung der inhaltlichen Erfassung, Erwerb weiterer Datenbanken und Optimierung ihrer Benutzeroberflächen für Endnutzer versucht, ihre Marktanteile zu vergrössern. Vor diesem Hintergrund stellt sich die Frage, ob nicht eine oder zwei dieser kostspieligen, umfangreichen Quellen für Endnutzer die wesentlichen Bedürfnisse im Bereich Sekundär/Tertiärliteratur abdecken kann. Aufgrund unserer langjährigen Rechercheerfahrung und von Datenbankvergleichen müssen wir diese Frage leider verneinen.
- Source
- Schriften der VÖB. 5(2008), S.27-27
-
Ball, R.: Wissenschaftskommunikation im Wandel : die Verwendung von Fragezeichen im Titel von wissenschaftlichen Zeitschriftenbeiträgen in der Medizin, den Lebenswissenschaften und in der Physik von 1966 bis 2005 (2007)
0.14
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- Abstract
- Die Titel wissenschaftlicher Veröffentlichungen sind von besonderer Bedeutung. Wir haben fast 20 Millionen wissenschaftliche Artikel untersucht und den Anteil von Artikeln mit einem Fragezeichen am Ende des Titels im Laufe der letzten 40 Jahre analysiert. Unsere Studie beschränkte sich auf die Disziplinen Physik, Lebenswissenschaften und Medizin. Dabei haben wir eine deutliche Zunahme der Fragezeichen-Artikel von 50 Prozent auf mehr als 200 Prozent feststellten können. Vor diesem Hintergrund werden im vorliegenden Beitrag die grundsätzlichen Funktionen und Strukturen der Titel wissenschaftlicher Publikationen untersucht. Wir gehen davon aus, dass Marketing-Aspekte die entscheidenden Beweggründe sind für die zunehmende Nutzung von Fragezeichen-Titeln bei wissenschaftlichen Publikationen.
- Field
- Biologie
- Source
- Information - Wissenschaft und Praxis. 58(2007) H.6/7, S.371-375
-
Information and living systems : philosophical and scientific perspectives (2011)
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- BK
- 42.02 / Philosophie und Theorie der Biologie
- Classification
- 42.02 / Philosophie und Theorie der Biologie
- RSWK
- Biologie / Informationstheorie / Bioinformatik
- Subject
- Biologie / Informationstheorie / Bioinformatik
-
Scerri, E.R.: ¬The periodic table : its story and its significance (2007)
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- BK
- 35.01 / Geschichte der Chemie
- Classification
- VB 2400 Chemie und Pharmazie / Bibliographien und Nachschlagewerke, Geschichte und Didaktik der Chemie und Pharmazie, Betriebssicherheit / Geschichte der Chemie und Pharmazie / Geschichte einzelner Probleme und Teilgebiete der Chemie und Pharmazie / Allgemeines
35.01 / Geschichte der Chemie
- Object
- Periodensystem der Elemente
- RSWK
- Periodensystem / Geschichte
Periodensystem / Geschichte 1800-2006 (BVB)
- RVK
- VB 2400 Chemie und Pharmazie / Bibliographien und Nachschlagewerke, Geschichte und Didaktik der Chemie und Pharmazie, Betriebssicherheit / Geschichte der Chemie und Pharmazie / Geschichte einzelner Probleme und Teilgebiete der Chemie und Pharmazie / Allgemeines
- Subject
- Periodensystem / Geschichte
Periodensystem / Geschichte 1800-2006 (BVB)
-
Knull-Schlomann, Kristina (Red.): New pespectives on subject indexing and classification : essays in honour of Magda Heiner-Freiling (2008)
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- Classification
- AN 51000 Allgemeines / Buch- und Bibliothekswesen, Informationswissenschaft / Bibliothekswesen / Bibliographien, Sammelschriften / Fest- und Gedenkschriften für Personen
AN 75000 Allgemeines / Buch- und Bibliothekswesen, Informationswissenschaft / Bibliothekswesen / Sacherschließung in Bibliotheken / Allgemeines
AN 93400 Allgemeines / Buch- und Bibliothekswesen, Informationswissenschaft / Informationswissenschaft / Grundlagen, Theorie / Klassifikation
- Content
- Ênthält die Beiträge: Classification - DDC Joan Mitchell: The Impact of Magda Heiner-Freiling and the German Translation on the Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC) System - Bernd Lorenz: Die DDC im Umfeld der Entwicklung dezimaler Klassifikationen - Lucy Evans: Early Days of DDC Networking in the UK - Magdalena Svanberg: Mapping two Classification Schemes - DDC and SAB - Ingrid Rückert: Klassifikatorische Erschließung in der Bayerischen Staatsbibliothek - Gerwin Kasperek: BioDDC - Anwendung der Dewey-Dezimalklassifikation im Fach Biologie - Benjamin Blinten: Perspektiven der Dewey-Dezimalklassifikation als Aufstellungssystematik in deutschsprachigen Bibliotheken - Josef Friedl: DDC im DDC - Rudolf Lindpointner: Die Entscheidung für die DDC als Aufstellungssystematik an der Oberösterreichischen Landesbibliothek - Gisela von Briel: Erfahrungen mit der Dewey-Dezimalklassifikation (DDC) in der Kantonsbibliothek Thurgau in Frauenfeld/Schweiz - Ekaterina Zaytseva: Classification Tools for Librarians and Users
Subject indexing - Subject authority data - Terminology Guido Bee: Zielstrebigkeit und Pragmatismus - Magda Heiner-Freilings Impulse für die verbale Inhaltserschließung - Marcia Zeng, Wei Fan: SKOS and Its Application in Transferring Traditional Thesauri into Networked Knowledge Organization Systems - Yvonne Jahns: Funktionelle Anforderungen an Normdaten für Themen von Werken - Edward 0' Neill: FAST - A New Approach to Controlled Subject Access - Pia Leth, Ingrid Berg: Subject Indexing in Sweden - Federica Paradisi: Analisi a faccette e categorie semantiche per i termini giuridici nel Thesaurus del Nuovo soggettario - Sohair Wastawy, Iman Khiry: The Development of Name and Subject Authority (Bibalex) at the Library of Alexandria - Holger Flachmann: 18 Jahre RSWK und SWD an der Universitätsund Landesbibliothek Münster - Margit Sandner: Entwicklung der SWD-Arbeit in Österreich - Ellen Kipple: Die Clearingstelle für Öffentliche Bibliotheken an der Deutschen Nationalbibliothek - Sybille Jungk: Die Erschließung der Belletristik und Kinder- und Jugendliteratur im Sachkatalog der Deutschen Nationalbibliothek Leipzig - Axel Ermert: Regelwerke, Klassifikation und Terminologie
Subject access - Multilingual access Winfried Gödert: Ontological Spine, Localization and Multilingual Access - Lars G. Svensson: Unified Access - A Semantic Web Based Model for Multilingual Navigation in Heterogeneous Data Sources - Patrice Landry: The Evolution of Subject Heading Languages in Europe and their Impact on Subject Access Interoperability - Gerhard Riesthuis: Subject Searching in Merged Catalogues - Jessica Hubrich, Tina Mengel, Katrin Müller, Jan-Helge Jacobs: Improving Subject Access in Global Information Spaces - Christel Hengel: The Virtual International Authority File (VIAF) - la C. Mcllwaine: Tongues of Men - Communication in an Electronic Age - Marie Balikova: Looking for the Best Way of Subject Access - Britta Woldering: Europeana - Mehrsprachiger Zugang zu Europas digitalem Kulturerbe - Ute Scharmann: 1001 Buchstabe oder Warum öffentliche Bibliotheken fremdsprachige Kinderliteratur bereithalten sollten Librarianship - Micellaneous Heidrun Wiesenmüller: Sacherschließung im Bachelorstudiengang Bibliotheks- und Informationsmanagement an der Hochschule der Medien Stuttgart - Dorothy McGarry: Magda Heiner-Freiling and Her Work in the IFLA Section on Classification and Indexing - Robert Zepf: Pour les generations présentes et future - For the Benefit of Present and Future Generations Heidrun Alex: Personalbibliografie Magda Heiner-Freiling
- RVK
- AN 51000 Allgemeines / Buch- und Bibliothekswesen, Informationswissenschaft / Bibliothekswesen / Bibliographien, Sammelschriften / Fest- und Gedenkschriften für Personen
AN 75000 Allgemeines / Buch- und Bibliothekswesen, Informationswissenschaft / Bibliothekswesen / Sacherschließung in Bibliotheken / Allgemeines
AN 93400 Allgemeines / Buch- und Bibliothekswesen, Informationswissenschaft / Informationswissenschaft / Grundlagen, Theorie / Klassifikation
-
Bertalanffy, L. von: General system theory : foundations, development, applications (1969)
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- BK
- 42.00 Biologie: Allgemeines
- Classification
- 42.00 Biologie: Allgemeines
-
Engel, P.: Teleosemantics: realistic or anti-realistic? : Votum (1992)
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- Field
- Philosophie
- Series
- Philosophie und Geschichte der Wissenschaften; Bd.18
- Source
- Wirklichkeit und Wissen: Realismus, Antirealismus und Wirklichkeits-Konzeptionen in Philosophie und Wissenschaften. Hrsg.: H.J. Sandkühler
-
¬The history and heritage of scientific and technological information systems : Proceedings of the 2002 Conference (2004)
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- BK
- 06.01 / Geschichte des Informations- und Dokumentationswesens
- Classification
- AN 92900 Allgemeines / Buch- und Bibliothekswesen, Informationswissenschaft / Informationswissenschaft / Nachschlagewerke, Allgemeine Darstellungen / Geschichte der Informationswissenschaft
06.01 / Geschichte des Informations- und Dokumentationswesens
- RSWK
- Informationssystem / Kongress / Geschichte (GBV)
Informations- und Dokumentationswissenschaft / Geschichte / Aufsatzsammlung (SWB)
- RVK
- AN 92900 Allgemeines / Buch- und Bibliothekswesen, Informationswissenschaft / Informationswissenschaft / Nachschlagewerke, Allgemeine Darstellungen / Geschichte der Informationswissenschaft
- Subject
- Informationssystem / Kongress / Geschichte (GBV)
Informations- und Dokumentationswissenschaft / Geschichte / Aufsatzsammlung (SWB)
-
Judge, A.J.N.: Representation of sets : the role of number (1979)
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- Source
- Klassifikation und Erkenntnis I. Proc. der Plenarvorträge und der Sektion 1 "Klassifikation und Wissensgewinnung" der 3. Fachtagung der Gesellschaft für Klassifikation, Königstein/Ts., 5.-6.4.1979
-
Popper, K.R.: Three worlds : the Tanner lecture on human values. Deliverd at the University of Michigan, April 7, 1978 (1978)
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- Field
- Wissenschaftstheorie
- Source
- https%3A%2F%2Ftannerlectures.utah.edu%2F_documents%2Fa-to-z%2Fp%2Fpopper80.pdf&usg=AOvVaw3f4QRTEH-OEBmoYr2J_c7H
-
Wissensorganisation und Edutainment : Wissen im Spannungsfeld von Gesellschaft, Gestaltung und Industrie. Proceedings der 7. Tagung der Deutschen Sektion der Internationalen Gesellschaft für Wissensorganisation, Berlin, 21.-23.3.2001 (2004)
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- Abstract
- Die 7. Tagung der Deutschen Sektion der ISKO (Internationalen Gesellschaft für Wissensorganisation) thematisierte, anknüpfend an die gesellschaftliche Entwicklung, das Spannungsfeld zwischen wissenschaftlicher Wissensorganisation und der bisher eher vernachlässigten Organisation unterhaltsamer Information unter dem - mehr provozierenden - Titel: Wissensorganisation und Edutainment: Wissensgesellscbaft - Informationsdesign - Unterhaltungsindustrie. Dieses Thema löste eine heftige Diskussion über die Grundlagen der Wissensorganisation und die Herausforderungen der neuen nichtwissenschaftlichen Umgebungen und Technologien aus. Es wurde u.a. die Frage gestellt, ob bereits von einer "Wissensindustrie" gesprochen werden kann, die in ihrer Verschmelzung mit der Unterhaltungsindustrie im "Edutain ment" gipfelt. Besonders rücken dabei auch Aktivitäten im Bereich "virtuelle Lehre" in den Vordergrund, etwa im Zusammenhang mit Internet und entsprechenden Initiativen in Politik und Gesellschaft (Slogan "Schulen und Bevölkerung ans Netz!"). Stand das Internet im Laufe seiner Entstehung zunächst noch ganz im Dienst von innerwissenschaftlicher Kommunikation, so ruft die Kommerzialisierung des Netzes und die Sicherung der Copy rights dann die Unterhaltungsindustrie auf den Plan. Wissenschaft, Kommerz und Kunst scheinen durch zunehmende Medienverschmelzung (WWW, interaktives Fernsehen, das neue Medium DVD, virtuelle Realität) immer enger zu einer neuen zu organisierenden Kulturgestalt zusammenzuschmelzen. An die Wissensorganisation stellen sich damit vollkommen neue Herausforderungen. Neben der Fragestellung "Wissensindustrie" behandelte diese Tagung auch das weitere interdisziplinäre Feld der Wissensorganisation und zwar nicht nur mit dem erleichterten Zugang und Wiederfinden von Wissenseinheiten, sondern auch dem gemeinsamen Erarbeiten von Wissen, seiner Aufbereitung und zielgruppengerechten, ansprechenden Präsentation. Der vorliegende Tagungsband enthält 25 Beiträge dieser Tagung, oft in überarbeiteter, aktualisierter Form (was ein relativ spätes Erscheinen rechtfertigt).
- BK
- 02.02 Wissenschaftstheorie
- Classification
- AN 90600 Allgemeines / Buch- und Bibliothekswesen, Informationswissenschaft / Informationswissenschaft / Bibliographien, Sammelschriften / Tagungs- und Kongreßberichte periodisch (CSN)
02.02 Wissenschaftstheorie
- Content
- Enthält die Beiträge: 1. Wissensgesellschaft Michael NIEHAUS: Durch ein Meer von Unwägbarkeiten - Metaphorik in der Wissensgesellschaft S.3 Karsten WEBER: Aufgaben für eine (globale) Wissensgesellschaft oder "Welcome to the new IT? S.9 Katy TEUBENER: Chronos & Kairos. Inhaltsorganisation und Zeitkultur im Internet S.22 Klaus KRAEMER: Wissen und Nachhaltigkeit. Wissensasymmetrien als Problem einer nachhaltigen Entwicklung S.30 2. Lehre und Lernen Gehard BUDIN: Wissensorganisation als Gestaltungsprinzip virtuellen Lernens - epistemische, kommunikative und methodische Anforderungen S.39 Christan SWERTZ: Webdidaktik: Effiziente Inhaltsproduktion für netzbasierte Trainings S.49 Ingrid LOHMANN: Cognitive Mapping im Cyberpunk - Uber Postmoderne und die Transformation eines für so gut wie tot erklärten Literaturgenres zum Bildungstitel S.54 Rudolf W. KECK, Stefanie KOLLMANN, Christian RITZI: Pictura Paedagogica Online - Konzeption und Verwirklichung S.65 Jadranka LASIC-LASIC, Aida SLAVIC, Mihaela BANEK: Gemeinsame Ausbildung der IT Spezialisten an der Universität Zagreb: Vorteile und Probleme S.76 3. Informationsdesign und Visualisierung Maximilian EIBL, Thomas MANDL: Die Qualität von Visualisierungen: Eine Methode zum Vergleich zweidimensionaler Karten S.89 Udo L. FIGGE: Technische Anleitungen und der Erwerb kohärenten Wissens S.116 Monika WITSCH: Ästhetische Zeichenanalyse - eine Methode zur Analyse fundamentalistischer Agitation im Internet S.123 Oliver GERSTHEIMER, Christian LUPP: Systemdesign - Wissen um den Menschen: Bedürfnisorientierte Produktentwicklung im Mobile Business S.135 Philip ZERWECK: Mehrdimensionale Ordnungssysteme im virtuellen Raum anhand eines Desktops S.141
4. Wissensmanagement und Wissenserschließung René JORNA: Organizational Forms and Knowledge Types S.149 Petra BOSCH-SIJTSERRA: The Virtual Organisation and Knowledge Development: A Case of Expectations S.160 Stefan SMOLNIK, Ludmig NASTARSKY: K-Discovery: Identifikation von verteilten Wissensstrukturen in einer prozessorientierten Groupware-Umgebung S.171 Alexander SIGEL: Wissensorganisation, Topic Maps und Ontology Engineering: Die Verbindung bewährter Begriffsstrukuren mit aktueller XML-Technologie S.185 Gerhard RAHMSTORF: Strukturierung von inhaltlichen Daten: Topic Maps und Concepto S.194 Daniella SAMOWSKI: Informationsdienstleistungen und multimediale Wissensorganisation für die Filmwissenschaft und den Medienstandort Babelsberg oder: Was hat Big Brother mit einer Hochschulbibliothek zu tun? S.207 Harald KLEIN: Web Content Mining S.217 5. Wissensportale Peter HABER, Jan HODEL: Die History Toolbox der Universität Basel S.225 H. Peter OHLY: Gestaltungsprinzipien bei sozialwissenschaftlichen Wissensportalen im Internet S.234 Markus QUANDT: souinet.de - ein Internetjournal mit Berichten aus den Sozialwissenschaften. Ziele und Konzept einer neuen Informationsplattform S.247 Jörn SIEGLERSCHMIDT: Das Museum als Interface S.264
- RVK
- AN 90600 Allgemeines / Buch- und Bibliothekswesen, Informationswissenschaft / Informationswissenschaft / Bibliographien, Sammelschriften / Tagungs- und Kongreßberichte periodisch (CSN)
- Series
- Fortschritte in der Wissensorganisation; Bd.7
-
Dawson, J.: Logical dilemmas : the life and work of Kurt Gödel (1996)
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- Abstract
- Die Biographie von Dawson, einem der Mitherausgeber der Gesammelten Werke Gödels, stützt sich auf ein intensives Studium des Nachlasses und zahlreiche Interviews mit Experten und Zeitgenossen Gödels. Sie verbindet eine umfassende Darstellung des persönlichen und kulturellen Hintergrundes mit einer integrierten Geschichte der Logik im 20. Jahrhundert, einer Geschichte, in der Gödel einer der Hauptdarsteller war
- BK
- 31.01 / Geschichte der Mathematik
- Classification
- SG 174 Mathematik / Biographien, Geschichte und Philosophie der Mathematik / Biographien / Einzelbiographien / gm - go
31.01 / Geschichte der Mathematik
- RVK
- SG 174 Mathematik / Biographien, Geschichte und Philosophie der Mathematik / Biographien / Einzelbiographien / gm - go
-
Blake, D.: Indexing the medical and biological sciences (1995)
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- Date
- 26. 7.2002 13:22:18
- Field
- Biologie
-
Kleineberg, M.: Context analysis and context indexing : formal pragmatics in knowledge organization (2014)
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- Source
- http://www.google.de/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=5&ved=0CDQQFjAE&url=http%3A%2F%2Fdigbib.ubka.uni-karlsruhe.de%2Fvolltexte%2Fdocuments%2F3131107&ei=HzFWVYvGMsiNsgGTyoFI&usg=AFQjCNE2FHUeR9oQTQlNC4TPedv4Mo3DaQ&sig2=Rlzpr7a3BLZZkqZCXXN_IA&bvm=bv.93564037,d.bGg&cad=rja
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Garfield, E.: Citation indexing : its theory and application in science, technology, and humanities (1979)
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- Classification
- AN 95100 Allgemeines / Buch- und Bibliothekswesen, Informationswissenschaft / Informationswissenschaft / Informationspraxis / Referieren, Klassifizieren, Indexieren
AN 96100 Allgemeines / Buch- und Bibliothekswesen, Informationswissenschaft / Informationswissenschaft / Informationsvermittlung, Informationsplanung / Herstellung von Bibliographien und Informationsdiensten
AK 39900 Allgemeines / Wissenschaftskunde und Wissenschaftsorganisation / Technik der wissenschaftlichen Arbeit / Hilfsmittel zur wissenschaftlichen Arbeit
- RVK
- AN 95100 Allgemeines / Buch- und Bibliothekswesen, Informationswissenschaft / Informationswissenschaft / Informationspraxis / Referieren, Klassifizieren, Indexieren
AN 96100 Allgemeines / Buch- und Bibliothekswesen, Informationswissenschaft / Informationswissenschaft / Informationsvermittlung, Informationsplanung / Herstellung von Bibliographien und Informationsdiensten
AK 39900 Allgemeines / Wissenschaftskunde und Wissenschaftsorganisation / Technik der wissenschaftlichen Arbeit / Hilfsmittel zur wissenschaftlichen Arbeit
-
Gould, S.J.: ¬The structure of evolutionary theory (2002)
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- Field
- Biologie
- Footnote
- Rez. in: Spektrum der Wissenschaft 2002, H.12, S.102-103 (W. Wickler): "Mit seinem letzten, schwergewichtigen Werk hat uns der kürzlich verstorbene Harvard-Professor und streitbare Autor Stephen Jay Gould ein sehr eigenwilliges Vermächtnis hinterlassen. Denn er präsentiert hier nicht etwa "die" Evolutionstheorie, sondern seine eigene, postdarwinistisch erweiterte Fassung derselben. Erweitert, indem er erstens die Weitergabe von Information als eigentliche Basis der Evolution leugnet und zweitens Konkurrenz um Ressourcen als wesentliches Element der natürlichen Selektion beiseite lässt. Das geschieht beiläufig irgendwo im Text und ist eingebettet in unterhaltsames bis detailbesessenes Rekapitulieren fremder wie eigener Denkwege. Ich greife diese beiden mir wichtigen Punkte heraus. Gould musste wissen, dass biologische Information in Genen kodiert ist und in Kopien der Gene weitergegeben wird. Entscheidend ist die Information, nicht das Material. Dennoch besteht Gould auf "material continuity throughout": Selbst wenn es gelänge, ein Lebewesen aus seinen Nukleotid-Sequenzen als Rohbausteinen zu synthetisieren und sich dieses in nichts von seinem natürlich erzeugten Vorbild unterschiede, dürfe man es nicht als Mitglied derselben Art ansehen. Er sagt weder, wie das bei Unkenntnis des Herstellungsweges zu vermeiden wäre, noch, welche andere Basis als die Information er denn für seine Evolutionstheorie in Anspruch nimmt. Gould weiß, dass die genetische Information Programme für Bau und Reaktionsweisen der Organismen liefert, dass das Individuum als Inkarnation der genetischen Information mit der Umwelt interagiert und dass die positiven und negativen Folgen dieser Interaktion darüber entscheiden, ob und wie oft seine Gene vervielfältigt werden. Das anerkennt er ausdrücklich als Selektion. Aber Gould ist Paläontologe, sieht Fossilreihen in datierten Schichten und findet Arten, die Millionen von Jahren unverändert bleiben, bis in einem Faunenbruch plötzlich die meisten verschwinden und nur wenige verbleibende zu einem Evolutionsschub beitragen. Die sprunghaften Änderungen will Gould mit Selektion auf höherer Ebene, von Populationen, Arten oder noch höheren taxonomischen Einheiten, erklären. Dabei bewertet er eine Einheit als umso erfolgreicher, je mehr Untereinheiten aus ihr hervorgehen. Der beste Beleg für Art-Selektion sei die Tatsache, dass verschiedene Arten sich mit unterschiedlichen Raten aufspalten. Heute gibt es vom Schimpansen zwei Arten, vom Menschen aber nur eine. Demnach wäre der Schimpanse evolutionär erfolgreicher als der Mensch? Darüber, wie Selektion auf Art-Ebene wirken kann, ohne an Merkmalen der Individuen anzusetzen, hat Gould während seiner ganzen Karriere am meisten nachgedacht, zuletzt anhand von Eigenschaften, die als "Emergenz" erst auf überindividueller Ebene auftreten, wie die Merkmalsvarianz. In seinem konstruierten Beispiel lässt er in einem verfaulenden Tümpel eine Fischart aussterben, deren Vertreter allesamt sauerstoffreiches Wasser brauchen, während von einem anderen Fisch mit größerer Kiemenfunktion-Varianz einige Individuen (!) überleben, die auch in schlechtem Wasser noch atmen können; ihre Nachkommen füllen später den wieder wohl belüfteten Tümpel. Nach Gould hat die Selektion die große interindividuelle Varianz der Kiemenfunktion belohnt. Aber: Viele Individuen sterben auch hier, und die Überlebenden verkörpern nur einen schmalen Ausschnitt der Varianz; vererben sie nur den an ihre Nachkommen, dann hat die Selektion genau das Merkmal zerstört, das sie angeblich belohnt hat. Vor allem aber: Art-Selektion spielt sich stets, wie schon ihr Erfinder Hugo de Vries 1905 betonte, zwischen Arten ein und derselben systematischen Einheit ab. Deswegen hat auch Gould zwei nahe verwandte Fischarten und nicht etwa Fisch gegen Wurm oder Krebs konkurrieren lassen. Er verschleiert mit vielen Worten, dass es in diesem Fall eben doch nur die relativ wenigen unterschiedlichen Gere sind, an denen die Selektion ansetzt, und nicht grundsätzlich verschiedene Systeme.
Und schließlich: Oft entscheidet die unbelebte Umwelt über die weitere Evolution einer taxonomischen Einheit. Man mag auch das Selektion nennen und muss dann jede Einheit für sich betrachten. Nach Darwins Konzept beruht die natürliche Selektion jedoch auf einer Konkurrenz um gemeinsam genutzte Ressourcen, bei dem ein Konkurrent seinen relativen Vorteil auf Kosten eines anderen erreicht. Der gemeinsame Tümpel in Goulds Beispiel erweckt zwar den Anschein von Konkurrenz, doch jede Art kämpft allein um ihr Dasein. Sauerstoffgehalt hat eher die Eigenschaften einer Temperatur als einer Nahrung: Er kann zwar lebensgefährlich niedrig sein, aber man kann ihn den anderen Individuen nicht wegfressen. Die angeblich konkurrierenden Arten aus Goulds Beispiel könnten ebenso gut in Tümpeln auf verschiedenen Kontinenten leben. Sein zweites Beispiel, in der die Populationsstruktur das emergente Merkmal ist, kann ebenfalls nicht überzeugen. Einigen brutpflegenden Meeresschnecken erlaubt angeblich die Abgrenzung örtlich isolierter Populationen eine höhere Artbildungsrate als den nicht-brutpflegenden Arten mit planktontischen Larven. Aber Brutpflege ist ein Merkmal des Individuums. Wieder ist von Konkurrenz keine Rede; es geht nur um die Anzahl registrierbarer Zweig-Arten wie in einer Reproduktions-Olympiade. Eine beherzigenswerte Erweiterung der Evolutionstheorie habe ich in dem Buch nicht gefunden. Immerhin: Ein unbezweifeltes Verdienst Goulds ist seine strikte Unterscheidung zwischen > selektionsverursachter Anpassung (Adaptation), > epiphänomenaler Passung (Zweckentfremdung, Exaptation), das heißt, dass ein bereits auf einen bestimmten Zweck adaptiertes Merkmal einem neuen Zweck dienstbar gemacht wird, und > zufälliger, Bauplan-inhärenter Eignung. Typisches Beispiel sind die sekundären Pflanzenstoffe: Abfallprodukte des Stoffwechsels, mit denen die Pflanze zunächst nichts anfangen kann, die ihr aber nützen, weil sie für Fressfeinde giftig sind. Gould nennt sie "spandrel" ("Spandrille", Bogenzwickel) nach einer Gewölbefläche im Markus-Dom in Venedig, die angeblich bautechnisch notwendig, aber obendrein zum Ausmalen mit einem ganz bestimmten Bild-Typ geeignet ist. Allerdings heißt solche Gewölbefläche architektonisch Hänge- oder Strebebogen (pendentive); und es gibt dazu eine bautechnische Alternative, den Stützbogen (squinch). Der aber lässt sich nicht so schön ausmalen. Also ist das pendentive eine Anpassung, aber Gould nennt sie spandrel und meint damit eine Nicht-Anpassung. Alles klar?"
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Bazler, J.A.: Biology resources in the electronic age (2003)
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