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Abstract

A general measure of retrieval effectiveness having full metric properties and treating the 'retrieval system - arbiter of relevance' situation symmetrically, is the Marczewski-Steinhaus metric, D, measuring the distance between the set of relevant documents, A, and set of retrieved documents, B, according to D=1-(n(A´B)/n(AvB)). D can be expressed as a function of precision and recall, or of generality, fallout and recall, and of other sets of traditional measures. Acceptance of the measure allows criteria for retrieval optimality and degeneracy to be stated, defined by minimum and constant values of D respectively. Precision-recall degeneracy curves for D are given and compared with those for another general measure: the probability that a document will be correctly identfied by a retrieval system. Statistical extensions of D are examined, and these and other properties of the metric are illustrated with seven examples

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Source

Science, technology and society: a cross-disciplinary perspective. Ed: I. Spiegel-Rosing u. D. de Solla Price

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Editor

Angell, D.

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Editor

Austin, D.

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Abstract

So far terminological work has been mainly directed towards defining very special concepts. The more general ones, e.g. those denoting subject-fields have been neglected with the result that communication on this level has been seriously hampered. There exists a great number of such terms and also a growing trend for the formation of new ones. In the FRG an R&D project was started in 1972 with the collection of names of subject fields, it is intended to assemble their definitions in a dictionary and to build a general concept system by computercomparison of their characteristics as provided by their definitions. The nature of subject-fields is explained, details on the German collection are given as well as some results from a formal analysis of their concepts. It is proposed to initiate similar projects in other linguistic regions as well; this could be done under the auspices of Infoterm. Some application-possibilities for a general concept-system (e. g. a broad system of ordering) are given. The annex displays a scheme of 9 subject areas and about 90 subareas for the sorting of names of subject fields

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Abstract

Bruner war der erste Erforscher des Spracherwerbs von Kindern, der Wittgensteins Problem zu würdigen wußte und eine Antwort darauf vorschlug. Wittgensteins allgemeinem Ansatz folgend, behauptete Bruner, daß das Kind den konventionellen Gebrauch eines sprachlichen Symbols dadurch erwirbt, daß es lernt, an einer Interaktionsform (Lebensform, Szene gemeinsamer Aufmerksamkeit) teilzunehmen, die es zunächst nichtsprachlich versteht, so daß die Sprache des Erwachsenen in geteilten Erfahrungen verankert werden kann, deren soziale Bedeutung es schon begreift. Eine Schlüsselkomponente dieses Prozesses ist zunächst ein Kind, das Erwachsene als intentionale Wesen auffassen kann, so daß es in bestimmten Kontexten seine Aufmerksamkeit mit ihnen teilen kann. Eine andere Komponente ist jedoch die bereits existierende, äußere soziale Welt, in der das Kind lebt. Um Sprache zu erwerben, muß das Kind in einer Welt leben, die strukturierte soziale Tätigkeiten aufweist, die es verstehen kann, so wie unser hypothetischer Besucher Ungarns das Kaufen von Fahrkarten und das Reisen mit Zügen verstand. Für Kinder bedeutet das häufig die Wiederkehr derselben routinemäßigen, allgemeinen Aktivität, so daß sie erkennen können, wie diese Aktivität aufgebaut ist und wie die verschiedenen sozialen Rollen in ihr funktionieren. Wenn wir am Spracherwerb interessiert sind, muß der Erwachsene außerdem ein neues sprachliches Symbol auf eine solche Weise verwenden, die das Kind als relevant für die gemeinsame Tätigkeit erkennen kann (nämlich im Gegensatz zur unvermittelten Ansprache des Ungarn auf dem Bahnhof). Wenn ein Kind in eine Welt geboren werden würde, in der dieselbe Art von Ereignis nie wiederkehrte, derselbe Gegenstand nie zweimal erschiene und Erwachsene nie dieselben Ausdrücke im selben Kontext verwendeten, dann würde im allgemeinen schwer zu sehen sein, wie dieses Kind eine natürliche Sprache erwerben könnte, welche kognitiven Fähigkeiten es auch immer haben möge. Eine Reihe von Untersuchungen hat gezeigt, daß Kinder nach ersten Fortschritten beim Spracherwerb neue Wörter am besten in Szenen gemeinsamer Aufmerksamkeit lernen. Oft handelt es sich dabei um solche, die in ihrer täglichen Erfahrung wiederkehren, wie Baden, Füttern, Windelwechseln, Vorlesen und Autofahren. Diese Tätigkeiten sind in vielen Hinsichten analog zu dem Szenario des Fahrkartenkaufs auf einem Bahnhof, insofern das Kind seine eigenen und die Ziele des Erwachsenen in der jeweiligen Situation versteht, was ihm ermöglicht, die Relevanz des Sprachverhaltens des Erwachsenen für diese Ziele zu erschließen. So stellten Tomasello und Todd fest, daß Kinder, die mit ihren Müttern längere Zeit bei Tätigkeiten gemeinsamer Aufmerksamkeit im Alter zwischen zwölf und achtzehn Monaten verbrachten, mit achtzehn Monaten ein größeres Vokabular hatten. Bei der Sprachverwendung Erwachsener innerhalb dieser Szenen gemeinsamer Aufmerksamkeit fanden Tomasello und Farrar sowohl korrelative als auch experimentelle Belege für die Hypothese, daß Mütter, die Sprache beim Versuch verwendeten, der Aufmerksamkeit ihrer Kinder zu folgen (d. h. über einen Gegenstand zu sprechen, der schon im Brennpunkt des Interesses und der Aufmerksamkeit des Kindes stand), Kinder mit einem größeren Vokabular hatten als Mütter, die Sprache beim Versuch verwendeten, die Aufmerksamkeit des Kindes auf etwas Neues zu lenken.